Utation results in the misfolding and defective export of the receptor. It is also possible that Lys65 may mediate a2A-AR interaction with other regulatory proteins and such interactions are crucial for the receptor export from the ER. Consistent with this possibility, a number of accessory proteins directly interact with the intracellular loops of GPCRs to modulate receptor export from the ER to the cell surface [5]. This possibility is also supported 18325633 by our recent studies showing that the RRR motif in the ICL3 mediates a2B-AR interaction with Sec24 isoforms, components of COPII transport vesicles, to control receptor export from the ER [34]. Second, more interestingly, mutation of Lys65 to the same charged Arg residue enhanced the cell-surface number of a2A-AR. There are at least two possible explanations for the enhancement of the cell-surface expression of a2A-AR induced by mutation of Lys65 to Arg. It is possible that mutation of Lys to Arg stabilizes a2A-AR once transported to the cell surface. As the overall size ofthe side chain of Arg is larger than that of Lys, it may enhance the possible ionic interactions between the positively charged side chain and some negatively charged components AN 3199 cost embedded within the plasma membrane. It is also possible that mutation of Lys to Arg may reduce the targeting of the cell-surface a2A-AR to some degradation pathways, such as those mediated by ubiquitination and/or sumoylation which are carried out specifically on Lys residues. However, whether or not Lys65 residue indeed undergoes ubiquitination and/or sumoylation remains unknown. Nevertheless, this study has demonstrated a crucial role for Lys65 residue in regulating the ER export and cell-surface expression of a2A-AR, yet the precise mechanisms of its actions remain to be elucidated. It has Peptide M site become increasingly clear that the efficient trafficking and precise positioning to specific functional destination of GPCRs are critical aspects in controlling integrated responses of the cell to hormones. Indeed, defective anterograde transport of GPCRs to the cell surface en route from the ER through the Golgi is tightly associated with the pathogenesis of a 1676428 variety of human diseases, including those induced by naturally occurring mutations or truncations of GPCRs, leading to the accumulation of misfolded receptors in the ER [16,50,51]. Therefore, further elucidation of the molecular mechanisms underlying the export traffic of GPCRs may provide a foundation for development of therapeutic strategies by designing specific drugs to control GPCR biosynthesis and cell-surface export trafficking.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: GW YF. Performed the experiments: YF CL JG. Analyzed the data: GW YF CL. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: YF GH. Wrote the paper: GW YF.
Type 2 diabetes affects over 300 million people worldwide, with the incidence of the disease expected to reach over 500 million by 2030 [1]. Insulin resistance and high blood glucose levels characterize the disease but its causes are multi-factorial [2,3]. One of the hallmarks of advanced type 2 diabetes is the development of amyloid plaques consisting of the endocrine hormone amylin (also known as islet 
amyloid polypeptide or IAPP) [4]. The amyloid plaques have been implicated in the destruction of pancreatic b-cells that synthesize both amylin and insulin [3,4]. As with other amyloid diseases it is unclear whether fibrils or soluble oligomers are responsible.Utation results in the misfolding and defective export of the receptor. It is also possible that Lys65 may mediate a2A-AR interaction with other regulatory proteins and such interactions are crucial for the receptor export from the ER. Consistent with this possibility, a number of accessory proteins directly interact with the intracellular loops of GPCRs to modulate receptor export from the ER to the cell surface [5]. 
This possibility is also supported 18325633 by our recent studies showing that the RRR motif in the ICL3 mediates a2B-AR interaction with Sec24 isoforms, components of COPII transport vesicles, to control receptor export from the ER [34]. Second, more interestingly, mutation of Lys65 to the same charged Arg residue enhanced the cell-surface number of a2A-AR. There are at least two possible explanations for the enhancement of the cell-surface expression of a2A-AR induced by mutation of Lys65 to Arg. It is possible that mutation of Lys to Arg stabilizes a2A-AR once transported to the cell surface. As the overall size ofthe side chain of Arg is larger than that of Lys, it may enhance the possible ionic interactions between the positively charged side chain and some negatively charged components embedded within the plasma membrane. It is also possible that mutation of Lys to Arg may reduce the targeting of the cell-surface a2A-AR to some degradation pathways, such as those mediated by ubiquitination and/or sumoylation which are carried out specifically on Lys residues. However, whether or not Lys65 residue indeed undergoes ubiquitination and/or sumoylation remains unknown. Nevertheless, this study has demonstrated a crucial role for Lys65 residue in regulating the ER export and cell-surface expression of a2A-AR, yet the precise mechanisms of its actions remain to be elucidated. It has become increasingly clear that the efficient trafficking and precise positioning to specific functional destination of GPCRs are critical aspects in controlling integrated responses of the cell to hormones. Indeed, defective anterograde transport of GPCRs to the cell surface en route from the ER through the Golgi is tightly associated with the pathogenesis of a 1676428 variety of human diseases, including those induced by naturally occurring mutations or truncations of GPCRs, leading to the accumulation of misfolded receptors in the ER [16,50,51]. Therefore, further elucidation of the molecular mechanisms underlying the export traffic of GPCRs may provide a foundation for development of therapeutic strategies by designing specific drugs to control GPCR biosynthesis and cell-surface export trafficking.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: GW YF. Performed the experiments: YF CL JG. Analyzed the data: GW YF CL. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: YF GH. Wrote the paper: GW YF.
Type 2 diabetes affects over 300 million people worldwide, with the incidence of the disease expected to reach over 500 million by 2030 [1]. Insulin resistance and high blood glucose levels characterize the disease but its causes are multi-factorial [2,3]. One of the hallmarks of advanced type 2 diabetes is the development of amyloid plaques consisting of the endocrine hormone amylin (also known as islet amyloid polypeptide or IAPP) [4]. The amyloid plaques have been implicated in the destruction of pancreatic b-cells that synthesize both amylin and insulin [3,4]. As with other amyloid diseases it is unclear whether fibrils or soluble oligomers are responsible.