Protamine sulfate disrupt urothelial permeability barrier whereas dimethyl sulfoxide, a solvent with antiinflammatory and bacteriostatic properties, is capable of penetrating living tissue without the need of causing substantial damage.105 The latter has thus been authorized by the US Food and Drug administration for the remedy of interstitial cystitis. Liposomes are versatile drug delivery systems consisting of an aqueous core enclosed in certainly one of a lot more phospholipid bilayers and may be made use of to transport each hydrophobic and hydrophilic drug molecules.105 Alternatively, empty liposomes may possibly improve the barrier function of a dysfunctional urothelium and reduce the penetration of irritants. The reduced urinary tract is ideally suited for minimally invasive intravesical treatments. Therefore, continued analysis efforts are needed not merely to improve our understanding in the pathophysiological mechanisms that underlie bladder dysfunction, but in addition to enhance our information in the chemical and physical properties with the bladder wall along with the processes that regulate drug transport across it.NIHPA Author Manuscript NIHPA Author Manuscript NIHPA Author ManuscriptAcknowledgmentsThis evaluation was supported by grants from EU FP7 InComb and NIH (R37 DK54824).
NIH Public AccessAuthor ManuscriptDev Dyn. Author manuscript; offered in PMC 2012 January 16.Published in final edited form as: Dev Dyn. 2012 January ; 241(1): 166. doi:10.1002/dvdy.22737.NIHPA Author Manuscript NIHPA Author Manuscript NIHPA Author ManuscriptPokes, Sunburn, and Hot Sauce: Drosophila as an Emerging Model for the Biology of NociceptionSeol Hee Im1 and Michael J. Galko1,2,3, 1Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas2Genesand Development Graduate System, University of Texas Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, Texas3NeuroscienceGraduate Program, University of Texas Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TexasAbstractThe word “nociception” is derived in the Latin “nocere,” which implies “to harm.” Nociception refers for the sensory perception of noxious stimuli that have the possible to cause tissue damage. Since the perception of such potentially harmful stimuli generally benefits in behavioral escape responses, nociception delivers a protective mechanism that makes it possible for an organism to prevent incipient (or additional) harm towards the tissue. It appears to be universal in metazoans as many different escape responses is often observed in each mammalian and nonmammalian vertebrates, at the same time as diverse invertebrates for instance leeches, nematodes, and fruit flies (Sneddon [2004] Brain Research Assessment 46:12330; Tobin and Bargmann [2004] Journal of Neurobiology 61:16174; Smith and Lewin [2009] Journal of Comparative Physiology 195:1089106). Numerous types of stimuli can trigger nociceptive sensory transduction, which includes noxious heat, noxious chemical compounds, and harsh mechanical stimulation. Such highthreshold stimuli induce the firing of action potentials in peripheral nociceptors, the sensory neurons specialized for their detection (Basbaum et al. [2009] Cell 139:26784). In vertebrates, these action potentials can either be relayed directly to a spinal motor neuron to provoke escape behavior (the socalled Ac2 protein Inhibitors targets monosynaptic reflex) or can travel through spinal cord interneurons to higherorder processing centers inside the brain. This review will cover the establishment of Drosophila as a method to study several elements of nociceptive sensory perception.